Hypertension and Lifestyle Related Risk Factors
Main Article Content
Abstract
Background: Hypertension is a leading cause of stroke, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease, contributing to substantial morbidity, mortality, and economic burden on healthcare systems globally. This study aims to identify risk factors associated with the prevalence of hypertension among a rural community in Central Java.
Methods: The study employed a cross-sectional design involving 100 respondents selected via purposive sampling. Data collection took place between July and August 2025, utilising blood pressure measurements and the completion of a questionnaire on respondent characteristics. Bivariate analysis was performed using the chi-square test, whilst multivariate analysis employed multiple logistic regression.
Results: The proportion of respondents with hypertension reached 57%. Bivariate analysis demonstrated significant associations between hypertension and age (p = 0.012), BMI/obesity (p = 0.003), physical activity (p = 0.015), high-salt diet (p = 0.001), and stress level (p = 0.045), whilst smoking was not significant (p = 0.084). Multivariate analysis identified high-salt diet as the most dominant risk factor (AOR = 4.72; 95% CI: 2.11–10.56), followed by obesity (AOR = 3.80; 95% CI: 1.74–8.26) and low physical activity (AOR = 2.65; 95% CI: 1.21–5.81).
Conclusion: Hypertension incidence is influenced by a combination of lifestyle and physiological factors. Integrated promotive and preventive strategies targeting salt reduction, weight management, physical activity, and stress management are required within primary healthcare services.
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Amirzada, M. Z., Sahrai, M. S., Hayat, M. S., & Ishaq, N. (2024). Associations of tobacco use , physical activity and diet with hypertension in the city of Kandahar , Afghanistan : a community-based cross-sectional study. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-07068-0
Bludorn, J., & Railey, K. (2024). Hypertension Guidelines and Interventions. Primary Care - Clinics in Office Practice, 51(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pop.2023.07.002
Bull, F. C., Al-, S. S., Biddle, S., Borodulin, K., Buman, M. P., Cardon, G., Carty, C., Chaput, J.-P., Chastin, S., Chou, R., Dempsey, P. C., Dipietro, L., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Friedenreich, C. M., Garcia, L., Gichu, M., Jago, R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., … Willumsen, J. F. (2020). World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. 1451–1462. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102955
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Fryar, C., Kit, B., Carroll, M. D., & Afful, J. (2024). Hypertension Prevalence , Awareness, Treatment , and Control Among Adults Age 18 and Older : United States ,. 511, 1–11.
Gao, N., Liu, T., Wang, Y., Chen, M., Yu, L., Fu, C., & Xu, K. (2023). Assessing the association between smoking and hypertension : Smoking status , type of tobacco products , and interaction with alcohol consumption. February, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2023.1027988
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Kario, K., Nomura, A., Nakagawa, K., & Tanigawa, T. (2021). Efficacy of a digital therapeutics system in the management of essential hypertension : the HERB-DH1 pivotal trial. 4111–4122. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab559
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Minarti, Wardana, A., Hartati, Y., & Minata, F. (2024). Determinasi karakteristik responden dan lingkungan sosial kejadian hipertensi di UPT Puskesmas Teluk Betung Kabupaten Banyuasin Tahun 2023. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat, 8(1), 254–265. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31004/prepotif.v8i1.25865
Muharram, F. R., Widyahening, I. S., & Danaei, G. (2025). Hypertension care performance in Indonesia : evidence from three waves of nationally representative cross- sectional surveys. 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-109588
Park, S., So, W., Kang, Y., & Yang, J. (2023). Relationship between Perceived Stress , Obesity , and Hypertension in Korean Adults and Older Adults. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11162271
Schaare, H. L., Kumral, D., Uhlig, M., Lemcke, L., & Villringer, A. (2023). Associations between mental health , blood pressure and the development of hypertension. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37579-6
Schroeder, E. C., Franke, W. D., Sharp, R. L., & Lee, D. chul. (2019). Comparative effectiveness of aerobic, resistance, and combined training on cardiovascular disease risk factors: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210292
Unger, T., Borghi, C., Charchar, F., Khan, N. A., & Poulter, N. R. (2020). 2020 International Society of Hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. 38(6). https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000002453
Vignesh, A., Cheeran, T., Aravindan, A., & Vasanth, K. (2025). Effects of dietary approaches to prevent hypertension and enhance cardiovascular health. Discover Food. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00278-w
Xiaofeng Wang, Z. C. (2020). Cross-Sectional Studies. 65–71. https://doi.org/https://https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
Zhao, Q., Deng, L., Shi, J., Li, Y., Cheng, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026). Connection of smoking with risks of dyslipidemia , diabetes , and hypertension among adults in Northeast China : a cross- sectional study. 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-26700-1
Ahmed, B., Rahman, A. A., Lee, S., & Malhotra, R. (2024). The Implications of Aging on Vascular Health. 1–22. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252011188
Amirzada, M. Z., Sahrai, M. S., Hayat, M. S., & Ishaq, N. (2024). Associations of tobacco use , physical activity and diet with hypertension in the city of Kandahar , Afghanistan : a community-based cross-sectional study. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-024-07068-0
Bludorn, J., & Railey, K. (2024). Hypertension Guidelines and Interventions. Primary Care - Clinics in Office Practice, 51(1), 41–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pop.2023.07.002
Bull, F. C., Al-, S. S., Biddle, S., Borodulin, K., Buman, M. P., Cardon, G., Carty, C., Chaput, J.-P., Chastin, S., Chou, R., Dempsey, P. C., Dipietro, L., Ekelund, U., Firth, J., Friedenreich, C. M., Garcia, L., Gichu, M., Jago, R., Katzmarzyk, P. T., … Willumsen, J. F. (2020). World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. 1451–1462. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-102955
Camara, A., Koné, A., Millimono, T. M., Sow, A., & Kaké, A. (2024). Prevalence , risks factors , and control of hypertension in Guinean older adults in 2021 : a cross-sectional survey. 1–11. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18936-6
Carey, R. M., Wright, J. T., Taler, S. J., & Whelton, P. K. (2021). Guideline-Driven Management of Hypertension: An Evidence-Based Update. Circulation Research, 128(7), 827–846. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.318083
Fryar, C., Kit, B., Carroll, M. D., & Afful, J. (2024). Hypertension Prevalence , Awareness , Treatment , and Control Among Adults Age 18 and Older : United States ,. 511, 1–11.
Gao, N., Liu, T., Wang, Y., Chen, M., Yu, L., Fu, C., & Xu, K. (2023). Assessing the association between smoking and hypertension : Smoking status , type of tobacco products , and interaction with alcohol consumption. February, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2023.1027988
Harrison, D. G., Coffman, T. M., & Wilcox, C. S. (2021). Pathophysiology of Hypertension. Circulation Research, 128(7), 847–863. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.318082
Kario, K., Nomura, A., Nakagawa, K., & Tanigawa, T. (2021). Efficacy of a digital therapeutics system in the management of essential hypertension : the HERB-DH1 pivotal trial. 4111–4122. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab559
Kario, K., Okura, A., Hoshide, S., & Mogi, M. (2024). The WHO Global report 2023 on hypertension warning the emerging hypertension burden in globe and its treatment strategy. 1099–1102. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-024-01622-w
Kartika, M., Subakir, S., & Mirsiyanto, E. (2021). Faktor-Faktor risiko yang berhubungan dengan hipertensi di Wilayah Kerja Puskesmas Rawang Kota Sungai Penuh Tahun 2020. Jurnal Kesmas Jambi, 5(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.22437/jkmj.v5i1.12396
Ma, J., & Chen, X. (2022). Advances in pathogenesis and treatment of essential hypertension. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 9(October), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2022.1003852
Mahato, R. K., San, S., Htun, M., Htike, K. M., & Nawawonganun, R. (2025). Development of health literacy tool for hypertension and determinants of limited health literacy in rural Myanmar : Implications for targeted public health interventions. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 33(March), 102018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cegh.2025.102018
Meouchy, P. El, Wahoud, M., Allam, S., Chedid, R., Karam, W., & Karam, S. (2022). Hypertension related to obesity: pathogenesis , characteristics and factors for control. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms232012305
Minarti, Wardana, A., Hartati, Y., & Minata, F. (2024). Determinasi karakteristik responden dan lingkungan sosial kejadian hipertensi di UPT Puskesmas Teluk Betung Kabupaten Banyuasin Tahun 2023. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat, 8(1), 254–265. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31004/prepotif.v8i1.25865
Muharram, F. R., Widyahening, I. S., & Danaei, G. (2025). Hypertension care performance in Indonesia : evidence from three waves of nationally representative cross- sectional surveys. 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2025-109588
Park, S., So, W., Kang, Y., & Yang, J. (2023). Relationship between Perceived Stress , Obesity, and Hypertension in Korean Adults and Older Adults. 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11162271
Schaare, H. L., Kumral, D., Uhlig, M., Lemcke, L., & Villringer, A. (2023). Associations between mental health , blood pressure and the development of hypertension. 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37579-6
Schroeder, E. C., Franke, W. D., Sharp, R. L., & Lee, D. chul. (2019). Comparative effectiveness of aerobic, resistance, and combined training on cardiovascular disease risk factors: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 14(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210292
Unger, T., Borghi, C., Charchar, F., Khan, N. A., & Poulter, N. R. (2020). 2020 International Society of Hypertension global hypertension practice guidelines. 38(6). https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000002453
Vignesh, A., Cheeran, T., Aravindan, A., & Vasanth, K. (2025). Effects of dietary approaches to prevent hypertension and enhance cardiovascular health. Discover Food. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-025-00278-w
Xiaofeng Wang, Z. C. (2020). Cross-Sectional Studies. 65–71. https://doi.org/https://https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2020.03.012
Zhao, Q., Deng, L., Shi, J., Li, Y., Cheng, Y., & Liu, Y. (2026). Connection of smoking with risks of dyslipidemia , diabetes , and hypertension among adults in Northeast China : a cross- sectional study. 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-26700-1